Research Paper on New York City Essay Example

Research Paper on New York City Essay New York, officially known as the City of New York, is the largest city in the United States since 1790 and one of the largest in the world. Between 1785 and 1790, the city of New York was the capital of the United States. It is located in the northeast of the United States, on the Atlantic coast, in the southeast corner of the State of New York and is divided in five districts called boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, the Bronx, Queens, and Staten Island. Its inhabitants are called New Yorkers. New York influence deeply education, research, technology, finance, global commerce, media, art, fashion, and entertainment. Gathering all the characteristics of a global city, it is sometimes considered as the â€Å"capital of the world.† However New York is not the federal capital of the United States anymore, it is the most populated city in the country with 8,175,133 inhabitants in 2010, according to the Census Bureau. New York is one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the world with its many ethnic neighborhoods. The best known are Little Italy, or Chinatown, where there are the largest concentration of Chinese people in the United States. The City of New York welcomes 50 million visitors per year. Times Square, located in the intersection of Broadway and 42nd Street, and widely known as â€Å"The Crossroads of the World† is the focal center of entertainment industry. Over 300 thousand visitors come daily to see its world-known Broadway theaters. The city is home to many bridges, skyscrapers, and world famous parks. The financial district of New York is globally famous as the â€Å"Financial Capital of the World† and is home to the New York Stock Exchange and to future financial center One World Trade Center. In addition, the most expensive real estate in the world can also be found in Manhattan. We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on New York City specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on New York City specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on New York City specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Finally, New York welcomes institutions of global importance, such as the UN headquarters. However, it is as well the City of great cultural events and organizations, such as the Metropolitan Museum, the Brooklyn Museum, the Lincoln Center, and Museum of Modern Art. Many reputable universities are located in New York, including the City University of New York, the Columbia University, and the University of New York. University and college students, who are about to write their first research proposal on New York City, can encounter serious difficulties on preparing research project on such a multifaceted topic. In this case, we suggest you to read some free sample research paper on New York topics and try to understand the main rules of specific scientific text writing. They will show you how to outline your thesis statement, stress the key moment of your investigation, and bring up a persuasive, which will be a strong argument for your professor. At EssayLib.com custom writing service you can buy a custom research paper on New York topics. Your research paper will be written from scratch. We hire top-rated Ph.D. and Master’s writers only to provide students with professional research paper assistance at affordable rates. Each customer will get a non-plagiarized paper with timely delivery. Just visit our website and fill in the order form with all paper details: Enjoy our professional research paper writing service!

Be Careful About Careless Writing

Be Careful About Careless Writing Be Careful About Careless Writing Be Careful About Careless Writing By Mark Nichol Just the other day, I received an email from my dear friend Mary Fox, who begged me for assistance from afar. The warning lights came on one by one. In the first paragraph, she apologized for not letting me know about her â€Å"journey to Scotland . . . because it was a short notice from my business associate.† She went on to explain, â€Å"I have lost my wallet and other significant Document.† Then she wrote, â€Å"I will be glad if you can render some help in other to settle the outstanding debt of the hotel and other miscellaneous expenses. Please send the money to the following details of mine.† Mark, you ask me, how could you befriend anyone who is such an atrocious and affected writer? The answer: I can’t. My introductory paragraph was spurious. I don’t know anybody named Mary Fox. You’ve probably received a scam letter like this before, perhaps purportedly from someone you actually know. Many people have. And some of them, Lord knows how, fall for it. I blame the publishing establishment. (Stay with me here.) How is it that people can succumb to this pathetic con? Don’t they notice the stilted language obviously not the prose of someone raised speaking and writing English? Do they excuse it by reasoning that Ms. Fox wrote so awfully because she’s emotionally distraught? The problem is, we’re inured to poor writing. We see it all the time online, of course, but also in newspapers and magazines, even in books. The prose of writers with only a tenuous grasp of the basics of English composition is often published with little or no professional mediation, and so we get used to it. And like lumpen proles seduced by propaganda, we can’t recognize a con job when it punches us in the face. The day before dear Mary Fox implored me to come to her assistance, I received, by email, a PDF of a letter that began, â€Å"Congratulations to you as we bring to your notice, the results of the First Category draws of E-MAIL LOTTERY organized by the Canadian Government in conjunction with South Africa government (SA).† Whoo! I was told, â€Å"Please note that your lucky winning number falls within our Afro representative office in (South Africa) as indicated in your electronic play coupon.† Later references were made to â€Å"our Africa agent† and â€Å"our Africa Agent.† (I presume, from the previous quoted sentence, that this person is identifiable by their Afro.) Anyone who fails to note the nearly illiterate writing and falls victim to this scam or similar ones deserves what they get (or, more appropriately, doesn’t deserve what they get taken away from them), but I’m serious when I say that lax standards in publishing contribute to a diminishment of critical-thinking skills among the public. Misinformation and deception are of course often couched in elegant or at least competent language, but the publishing industry does us a disservice by abandoning its traditional role as a provider of exemplary literature and other prose. Many publications and publishers proudly uphold this role, but too many others sacrifice quality for expediency, and the world is a poorer place for it. (And some people are literally poorer for it.) Oh, speaking of poor, don’t worry about poor Ms. Mary Fox: I’m sending her the money she requested, because I won the lottery! Postscript: So that this post lives up to the DailyWritingTips.com mission, I offer these tips: When you receive a written message purporting to be from a friend or a valid institution, make sure the writing quality is appropriate for the source and make no excuses. And, in turn, if you want to be respected, write respectably. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the General category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:20 Types and Forms of Humor"Latter," not "Ladder"List of 50 Compliments and Nice Things to Say!

Breast cancer Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Breast cancer - Assignment Example The researchers observed the mutation 185delAG in 0.9% of Ashkenazim 95% limit in confidence was between 0.4%- 1.8% and there was none in the reference samples. The results led to the determination of the above number (Saunders 14). After a gene test, people are more aware of their fates thus they will tend to protect themselves more. As it is said â€Å"it is better to protection than to cure† in the cases of cancer many will prefer to protect themselves from the causative rather than wait so as to treat the defect later (Halyard 8). Ethically the Jews observed this testing genetic discrimination, there have been a long debate over the issue whereby many Jews think that this is wrong. Religiously Jews thinks that this is wrong genetic testing to them occurs as a mockery to the natural science of God, they believe that no one should tamper with the genetic makeup of a person (Saunders 15). It assists in the pre-symptomatic testing for the developing Huntington’s disease and adult-onset cancers prediction. It also aids in the estimation of the risk in developing Alzheimer’s disease and the adult-onset cancers (Saunders 16). The risk associated is normally associated both emotionally, financially or socially based on the results of the test. People will tend to be angry, anxious, guilty or depressed about their results (Saunders 17). The negative impact associated with genetic testing has lead to the recognition that is increasing. In some instances, genetic testing will lead to tension within family members because the results might reveal a family’s information on another individual related to the one been tested (Halyard 15). Mutation of BRCA2 and other genes might also lead to an inherited cancer of the breast. These genes include, the ATM which repairs damaged DNA, TP53 which aids in the production of a protein known as p53, CHEK2, PTEN, CDH1 and STK11 (Halyard 17). According to research done by scientists and doctors, the Jewish men tend to be

Gender Language, images, and contexts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Gender Language, images, and contexts - Essay Example Transgender activists and gender theorists have been vocal in advocating for an abolition of gender to free the society from the bonds of arbitrary behavioural norms that define gender. The assumption of gender to be a system consisting of two exclusively opposite categories in which people are placed is simple and does not give the full definition of what encompasses gender. The difference between the art and nature of gender is transsexual and non-transsexual aspects of gender. Transsexual gender is the physical change of people’s sexuality to be who they feel they are. On its part, natural gender is the acceptance and appreciation of what the society defines us to be. Non-transsexual theorists are ignorant of the form that a transsexual person undertakes after going through the physical change. The femininity and the masculinity according to them are naturally the actual aspects of defining gender. The art of changing one’s sexuality does little in changing who one i s. They refer to the Godliness of the act and the creativity aspect of the whole process. To transsexual theorists, creativity is evident when mankind begin exercising power of creativity, the power to increase our vocabulary, power to change our environment, our clothing as well as our bodies. She acknowledges that both the art and the nature of gen der reside in an individual person. The author seeks to address the issue of gender from the inside of a person and how this affects a person’s acts and performances. By linking the soul to an individual’s performances, the politics of the body are inherent there in. The article shows that desires of the soul define exactly what gender a particular person belongs to. Analysis The author believes that gender is not naturally what the society has bestowed upon the individual, but the actions of the individual from desires of the soul. The soul is the centre of everything it generates the actions that a person is likely to fo llow subconsciously and determines the social performances that depict one to be either male or female. The biological characteristics do not have much influence on gender determinants. Raising the argument a notch higher, the article holds that acts, desires, and gestures give birth to an internal substance, which is produced on the outside surface of the body, although they never reveal but suggest the organizing principle of identity as a cause. Such signs, gestures, or enactments according to the article are performative, meaning that the identity that they claim to express are not original, but rather manufactured and sustained through corporeal signs among other means. This means that what is outwardly expressed is in fact from the inside, and that the outward signs are simply fabrications of the inner expressions. The argument that the inner truth of gender is a fabrication and that the true gander is nothing but just a fantasy instituted on the surface of the body, then gend er cannot be either true or false. For instance, being feminine is not a cultural tag placed upon the individual woman, but rather, the actins seen on the surface of a person that are characterized to be feminine are actually from within the soul. The Contemporary Transgender Movement Abstract The paper aims at examining what the existing social movement literature can teach on collective identities. Traditional community has classified gender in

Analysis of Salient Macroeconomic Parameters of India Assignment

Analysis of Salient Macroeconomic Parameters of India - Assignment Example In PPP terms, it is quite evident from the above figures that the economy of India is growing at the average rate of 9 percent, which is certainly a good feat in the wake of liberalization and globalization process undertaken during the 1990s. The inflation rate has been growing steadily since the year 2005. Rapid economic growth in India has brought the perils of high inflation rate which was estimated at 10.9 and 12 percent in the year 2009 and 2010 respectively; however, in the year 2011 due to appropriate monetary policy by the Central Bank, it has reduced to 6.8 percent. The high inflation rate in India is causing great inconvenience to the people. (Inflation rate 2011) As per the report released by the Labor Ministry in October 2011, the unemployment rate in India was estimated at 9.4 percent during the fiscal 2010-11 which is certainly a matter of great concern. The government was confident of creating 58 million additional jobs by the end of 11the five-year-plan in 2012. Though India has been agrarian economy until the turn of this century in last one decade things have changed drastically as a contribution from services in the country's GDP has reached to almost 59 percent by the year 2010. (The government 2012) In its report of May 3, 2011, the Reserve Bank (Central Bank) specified that the Global economy was in an uncertain state. Inflation was the nagging issue on the domestic front due to high food prices. The policy document clearly specified that the goal of monetary policy was to nail the supply-side inflation. High inflation causes investment uncertainty. The policy document spelt out the necessity to bring down the inflation even at the cost of growth. Accordingly, Central Bank revised the interest rates upwards and raised the repo rates. Even CRR was often revised to take the excess money out of the market. That really helped to cool down the economy and brought the inflation rate at a moderate level. Thus, Central Bank keeps a strong vigil to control inflation and unemployment rate through its effective monetary measures. (Monetary Policy Statement, 2011)

Indias Foreign Exchange System: An Analysis

Indias Foreign Exchange System: An Analysis CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction: It is a fact that the currencies of different countries have different values that is based upon their actual economic and monetary strength. It is from this difference that the genesis of foreign exchange occurs. Foreign exchange can be termed as the act of matching the different values of the goods and services that is involved in the international business transaction process in order to attain the exact value that is to be transferred between the parties of an international trading transaction in monetary terms. Foreign exchange as an activity had started the day civilization and independent principalities got established in the world. But in those days it was a case of exchanging value in the form of transfer of goods and services of identical value that is commonly identified with barter system. Moreover the transactions were done on a one-to-one basis, and the terms and conditions were determined by the parties entering into such transactions. There was no universal system or rule that determined these transactions. In that way foreign exchange and international monetary system is a modern day trend that gained an institutional form in the first half of the twentieth century and has been developing since then. 2.2 Foreign Exchange: According to International Monetary Fund (IMF), Foreign Exchange is defined as different forms of financial instruments like foreign currency notes, deposits held in foreign banks, debt obligations of foreign banks and foreign governments, monetary gold and Special Drawing Rights (SDR) that are resorted to make payments in lieu of business transactions that is done by two business entities or otherwise, of nations that have currencies having different inherent monetary value (www.imf.org). Leading economist Lipsey Richard G.,1993 has mentioned that the foreign exchange transactions are basically a form of negotiable instrument that are resorted to deliver the cost of goods and services that form a part of trading transactions and otherwise, between business and public entities of nations of the global economy. Sarno, Taylor and Frankel, 2003 gives the definition of foreign exchange as denoting the act of purchase and sale of currencies of different economies that is performed over the counter for various purposes that includes international payments and deliverance of cost of various business transactions, where the value is usually measured by tallying the value of the currencies involved in the foreign exchange transaction with that of the value of U.S. Dollar. According to Clark and Ghosh 2004, Foreign Exchange denotes transactions in international currency i.e. currencies of different economies. In such transactions the value of a currency of one country is tallied and exchanged with similar value of the currency of the country in order to exchange the cost of a business transaction or public monetary transfer that is taking place between two entities of these economies. 2.2.1 Foreign Exchange Transactions: Transactions in foreign exchange are done through various types and various modes between different countries of the world. According to information mentioned in the Reuters Financial Training Series, 1999,TOD Transactions, TOM Transactions, Swap Rates, Spot Rates, Forward Rates, Margin Trading and Buy / Sell on Fixed Rates foreign exchange transaction methods are some of the commonly used methods that are widely used by global managers for their foreign exchange transaction activities. 2.2.1.1 TOD Operations: TOD Operations are foreign exchange transaction methods where the trader uses the exchange rate of the day on which the foreign exchange transaction order is to be executed. In other words TOP operations are commonly used in intra-day foreign exchange transactions. As a result they are commonly resorted to by speculators in foreign exchange transactions and those who general speculate on the rates of different foreign exchange markets of the globe. 2.2.1.2 TOM Operations: In this type of transactions the transaction process carried forward to the next day instead of it being an intra-day trading. TOM transactions rate is fixed on the day the transaction is signed, but the rate of exchange is agreed upon to be that of the next day. 2.2.1.3 SPOTTransactions: SPOT Transactions can be compared with TOM transactions because here also the exchange rate is fixed at a value that prevails over the exchange rate of intra-day trading of shares. But SPOT transactions have been separated as a different category because unlike TOM transactions, SPOT transactions contracts are executed on the third day after the signing of agreement between the Bank and the client. 2.2.1.4 Forward Contract: Forward contracts are those exchange rate contracts where the currency conversion exchange rate agreement is decided at a certain rate at a time that is well before the date of execution of the exchange contract. In that way they are similar to TOM transactions. The only differ from them in the fact that these transactions are made for a long term i.e. generally for one year, and the parties involved in making this foreign exchange transaction deposit five percent of the contract value with the bank involved in facilitating the transaction at the time of executing the contract which is then returned to the client after execution of the exchange transaction. The need for depositing this amount is to secure the transaction against any loss due to market fluctuations. 2.2.1.5 SWAP: The greatest advantage of SWAP transactions is that the clients involved in the foreign exchange get prior information about the exchange rate of the currencies that are part of the transaction. In this type of transaction the bank first buys the amount of transaction form the client and resells it to the client after a few days after disclosing the exchange rate of the currencies involved in the transaction process. SWAP transactions are much sought after by traders because here they get to know beforehand the exchange rate of the currencies involved in the transaction process that helps them in avoiding fluctuations in market rate and gives them the advantage of determining the prices of goods, the nature of the currency market notwithstanding. . 2.2.1.6 MarginTrading: The key element of Margin trading is that any trader can opt for SPOT trading round the clock by going through the margin trading mode. The other key element of margin trading is that the traders can make deals with a minimal spread for a huge amount of funds by projecting fraction of the needed amount. In that way it is a unique form of global financial transaction where the threshold value that can be transacted through the margin trading mode is $ 100000 with bigger deals being multiples of $ 100000. But in order to deal in margin trading the trader has to make a security deposit of five recent of the contract value that has to be replenished from time to time in order to maintain the amount from which the probable losses from margin trading transactions are accommodated. 2.2.1.7 Buying/Selling on Fixed Rate Order: This is a mutual agreement between the buyer and seller of foreign exchange. Neither its rate nor its other terms and conditions are based upon actual conditions. Rather the deal is based keeping the mutual profitability of the buyer and seller intact where both of them get their desired amount. 2.3 Global Foreign Exchange Market: According to the table depicting the Triennial Bank Survey of Foreign Exchange and Derivatives Market Activity done by Bank for International Settlements (BIS)2007, as shown below the global foreign exchange market has an average daily turnover of over $ 2 trillion, which is an increase of around forty percent in terms of volumes . This rise in foreign exchange transactions it is observed has been due to rise in the volume of trading in Spot and Forward markets. This is indicative towards increase in volatility of foreign exchange markets around the world. (www.bis.org). Global Foreign Exchange Market Turnover Daily averages in April, (in billions $) Year 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 Spot Transactions 317 394 494 568 387 621 Outright Forwards 27 58 97 128 131 208 Swaps in Foreign Exchange 190 324 546 734 656 944 Gaps in Reporting (Estimated) 56 44 53 60 26 107 Total Turnover (Traditional) 590 820 1,190 1,490 1,200 1,880 Memo: Turnover (At April 2004 Exchange Rates) 650 840 1,120 1,590 1,380 1,880 (BIS Triennial Central Bank Survey, 2004) As observed by Jacque Laurent L.1996, Studies in foreign exchange point to the fact that the volume involved in foreign exchange transactions in the total markets around the globe has the potential to affect the overall functioning of the global financial system due to the systematic risks that are part and parcel of the foreign exchange transaction system. Most of the transactions occur in the major markets of the world with the London Exchange followed by New York and Tokyo Stock Exchange accounting for over sixty percent of the foreign exchange transactions done around the globe. Among these transactions the largest share is carried out by banks and financial institutions followed by other business transactions i.e. exchange of value for goods and services as well as dealers involved in securities and financial market transactions. According to the studies by Levi Maurice D., 2005, in foreign exchange transactions most of the transactions happen in the spot market in the realm of OTC derivative contracts. This is followed by hedging and forward contracts that are done in large numbers. The central banks of different countries of the world and the financial institutions operating in multiple markets are the main players that operate in the foreign exchange market and provide the risk exchange control mechanism to the players of the exchange market and the system where around $ 3 trillion amount of money is transacted in 300000 exchanges located around the globe. The largest amount of transactions takes place in the spot rate and that too in the liquidity market. The quotation on price in these markets sometimes reaches to around two thousand times in a single day with the maximum quotations being done in Dollar and Deutschemark with the rates fluctuating every two to three minutes with the volume of transaction for a dealer in foreign exchange i.e. both individual and companies going to the range of $ 500 million in normal times. In recent years the derivativ e market is also gaining popularity in OTC dealings with regards to the foreign exchange market. 2.4 Global Foreign Exchange Market Management Risks: According to the researcher Kim S. H., 2005, Foreign exchange transactions are identified by their connection with some financial transactions occurring in some overseas market or markets. But this interconnectivity does not affect the inherent value of the currency of the country which is determined by the economic strength of that country. This means that the inherent value of each currency of the world is different and unequal. So when the need arises to exchange the value of some goods or service between countries engaged in such activity it becomes imperative to exchange the exact value of goods and services. Considering the complexity and volume of such trading and exchange activity occurring in the global market between countries it is but natural that the currencies of individual countries is subject to continual readjustment of value with the currency with which its value has to be exchanged. This gives rise to the importance of foreign exchange transactions as a separate ar ea of study and thereby needs much focus for its understanding (Frenkel , Hommel and Rudolf , 2005). In addition to this it is to be realized that with the growing pace globalization and integration of global economic order there has been a tremendous increase in international business transactions and closer integration of economic systems of countries around the world especially between the members of WTO, that has led to the increase in economic transactions and consequent activity in international foreign currency exchange system (Adams, Mathieson and Schinasi, 1998). Added to this is the fact that the exchange value of currencies in the transactions is not determined by the respective countries but by the interplay of value of the currencies engaged in an international foreign exchange transaction and the overall value of each currency in the transaction prevailing at that time. In fact each country in the global economic order would want to determine the value of its currency to its maximum advantage, which was possible a few years ago in when the countries used to determine the value of their currency according to the existing value of their economy. The individual countries till the early nineties used to follow a policy of total or partial control over the exchange value of their currency in the global market. At the same time there also were a group of countries that followed the policy or system in determining the exchange value of their currency i.e. left it to the interplay of global economic activity where the value was determined by its economic performance. The currencies of countries that provide full or partial amount of control in the international exchange value of its currency are known to follow a Fixed Rate whereas the currencies of countries that allow its currency to seek its inherent value through its performance in the global economic system are termed as following the Floating Rate of foreign exchange conversion mechanism. Though lo gically both the type of mechanism of foreign exchange face the effect of exchange rate fluctuations and consequent volatility in rate it is the currencies having a floating rate that are continually affected by the fluctuations in exchange rate in the global market when in the case of currencies with a fixed rate it is more of a controlled and regulated affair (Chorafas Dimitris N., 1992). 2.5 Foreign Exchange Risks Prevailing in the Global Market: Risks related to the exchange rate of a currency in the global market as has been mentioned, occurs due to the interplay of inherent value of each currency of the respective countries that are part of the global financial mechanism. Risks related to foreign exchange come into picture and are also inevitable in this world marching towards increased interaction due to globalization. The risks will occur due to business interaction and consequent exchange of value for goods and services. According to Kodres LauraE., 1996, the risks related to foreign exchange occur when there is increased interaction between the currency of a country with that of other countries in the international market and that too if the currency has a floating exchange rate. In that case the value of the currency is continually affected by its business and financial performance. This relation with other currencies in the market affects it during the time when the need arises to exchange it with another currency for settlement of financial transaction in some business or financial purposes and gives rise to various types of risks. The prominent risks associated during this situation are Herstatt Risk, and Liquidity Risk. 2.5.1 Herstatt Risk: Herstatt risk is a risk that is named after a German Bank that got liquidated by the German Government in the seventies of the last century and made to return all; the claims accruing to its customers. This is because its creditworthiness was affected and it could not pay the settlement claims to its customers and also on behalf of its customers to their clients. It is basically connected to the time aspect of foreign exchange value claim settlements in which the foreign exchange transactions do not get realized as the bank loses its ability to honour the transaction in the intervening period due to some causes. In the particular case the German bank failed to honour the financial settlement claims of its clients to their counter parties that were to be paid in values of U.S Dollars. The main issues that arose were regarding quantifying the amount to be delivered and the time of the transaction process due to the two countries financial systems being located and working according to different or separate time zones. This case has established a phenomenon in foreign exchange market where there may erupt situations in which the working hours of banks located in different time zones may never match with each other leading to foreign exchange settlement transactions getting affected during the mismatch of the two banks closing and opening time. In fact the Alsopp Report that studied this phenomenon in detail said that though the foreign exchange transactions are made in pen and paper on a single day the actual transfer of value takes place within three to four days. And with the exchange value of currencies operating in the international market always remaining in a state of flux they either get jacked up or devalued. In either case it affects the clause of transactions that was decided on an intra-day rate, as the value of both the currencies in the international market has changed during these days. 2.5.2 Risks related to Liquidity: There can crop up different problems related to the banking systems operations and dynamics i.e. in both technical and management systems as well as inability in terms of volume of available liquidity strength or in mismatch in tallying of time etc; that can affect the capacity of banks to honour foreign exchange transactions in terms of transfer of liquidity. These types of risks are being commonly witnessed in newly emerging economies that are being unable to cope with the sudden surge in volume of global business transactions thereby leading to exchange rate settlement and payment delays, outstanding payments and dishonouring of financial commitments in the exchange rate transaction market. 2.5.3 Financial Repercussions: According to the Studies in foreign exchange related risks by Dumas and Solnik, 1995 aver that risk related to transactions in foreign exchange have increased with globalization and the rise of global economic integration process with the countries getting affected in relation to the volume of their transactions in the global financial and business marketplace. This is because the market is now more oriented towards market value driven convertibility of currencies that is influenced by the global financial movements and transactions, and any independent transaction especially of transnational and multinational companies; will automatically affect other transactions happening in the global financial marketplace (Klopfenstein G.,1997). However, according to another study by Gallati Reto R., 2003, these multinational and transnational companies are simultaneously being affected by the fluctuations in exchange rate of different currencies of the global market that is exposing their business operations in different global markets to exchange rate related risks especially due to difference in Spot and Forward rates and the inevitable fluctuations (Choi , 2003) that give rise to foreign exchange settlement related problems. 2.5.4 Remedies to Foreign Exchange Settlement Risks: As there risks that have cropped up in foreign exchange transactions due to increase in volume and frequency of transactions mainly as a result of globalization so, also there have come up remedies to minimize the risk related to adverse conditions in foreign exchange transactions. The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) in one of its studies in 1999 has said that settlement of claims is the most predominant risk that is related to foreign exchange transactions, especially the speed with which these transactions are materialized and the roadblocks that they may face in the process due to tremendous increase in volume of foreign exchange transactions that cannot be cleared in expected times. The solution to these risks according to the study is to simultaneously clear transactions on either side i.e. for both the parties side so that they simultaneously give and receive payments at the agreed rate of exchange. This would solve the problem of extended time of actual payment when the rate of exchange fluctuates, thereby creating problems for both the parties. This arrangement is related to deals being processed simultaneously, which requires the concurrence and common cause of both the parties. This is because the party that is expecting a hike in value of it s currency may not agree to such a proposal. In that case there should be some law or arrangement that would make it mandatory for both the parties to settle their intra-day payments on that day itself so that there is no scope left for speculation by them. According to the study, such arrangements have been made in USA and Europe where systems like Fedwire and Trans- European Automated Real-Time Gross Settlement Express Transfer (TARGET) have been established. Fedwire facilitates payments in foreign exchange transactions under the mode of Real Time Gross Settlements (RTGS)and TARGET facilitates intra-day transfer of foreign exchange between parties of member countries of Europe on the same day itself. But, for simultaneous release of funds by both the parties and the intra-day settlement of claims to succeed it is imperative that the member countries of the global economic system should come together have concurrence on these issues. This is because all said and done the foreign exchange transaction related rules and laws are still governed by the respective countries. And most of these countries are reluctant to make any headway in linking their currency system to the global currency system for speedy disposal of foreign exchange transactions for fear that such a move would expose their currency end financial system to the baneful effects of risks and volatility of global foreign exchange system (Hagelin and Pramborg, 2004). At the level of international trading corporations there has been initiated some steps whereby they have formed a private arrangement known as Group of Twenty. They are a group of twenty internationally acclaimed global clearing banks who have formed an system called the Global Clearing Bank that acts as a connection between the payment systems of different countries and verifies international foreign exchange transactions in order to simultaneously satisfy both the parties regarding authenticity of the process of transaction. The thing is that this system puts a high amount of strain on the financial and foreign exchange system as well as reserves of individual countries along with requiring them to bring about some amount of commonality between the financial rules and regulations of individual countries which is easier said than done. All the same the establishment of Bilateral Netting System and Multilateral Netting Systems as well as of Exchange Clearing House (ECHO) are trying t o facilitate foreign exchange transactions and minimize the inherent risks involved (McDonough ,1996). 2.6 Indian Foreign Exchange System: 2.6.1 Historical Background: The historical background of foreign exchange system in India was a saga of excess control and monitoring with even minor transactions being made to undergo the rigorous scrutiny of concerned government authorities to avoid any risks associated with such transactions and save the scarce foreign exchange reserves from being frittered away in some transactions considered unimportant or anti-national by the government. The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) that was enacted in 1947 and made more stringent in 1973 was the embodiment of the prevailing sentiment of the governments of those days, which was to completely regulate and control all the foreign exchange transactions and protect the foreign currency reserves. (Mehta, 1985) All these changed in the nineties of the last century with the opening up of Indian economy in 1991 in keeping with the recommendations of the High Level Committee on Balance of Payments set up under the chairmanship of Dr C. Rangarajan by the Ministry of Finance, Government of India and subsequent entry of India into World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1994. This was preceded by the liberating of current account transactions and establishing full convertibility of current account transactions in 1993. In 1994 also the Government of India accepted Article VIII of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund that established the system of current account convertibility and the exchange value of rupee came to be determined according to the market rates with only the convertibility of capital account being under the control of the government (Krueger,2002) as the Tarapore Committee on Capital Account Convertibility of 1997 (Panagariya A., 2008) suggested the government to keep adequate sa feguards before allowing the convertibility of capital account to be determined according to the market forces as there was need to consolidate the financial system and have an accepted inflation target before such a venture. The Tarapore Committee also suggested that the legal framework governing the foreign exchange transaction system in India also needs to be modernized before going for total convertibility of the capital account due to which the Government repealed the FERA Act of 1973 and promulgated the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) in 2000. This new act did away with the system of regulation and control and established a system of facilitation and management of foreign exchange transactions thereby promoting all the activities related to foreign exchange transactions. The most important thing that was done by FEMA was to recognize violations or mistakes in foreign exchange transactions as a civil offence instead of a criminal offence as was done by FERA. FEMA also shifted the responsibility of proving the violation or mistake in foreign exchange transaction and related rules from the prosecutor to the prosecuted. And if the prosecuted was proved guilty he or she was to pay only monetary fine or compensation instead of being jailed as was the earlier provision under FERA. FEMA also simplified many of the rules and notified specific time frames for delivering judgments related to violations of foreign exchange rules and regulations and provide rules for establishing special tribunals and forums to deal with such cases. Th e compounding rules were also made less stringent and all matters related to compounding rules were notified to be dealt by Reserve Bank of India (RBI) instead of the previously assigned Enforcement Directorate. RBI was made the designated Compounding Authority in all related matters. Only the cases involving hawala transactions were left from its purview As per Mecklal and Chand

The Imposter Phenomenon :: Women Imposter Phenomenon Essays

The Imposter Phenomenon The Imposter Phenomenon – as defined by the â€Å"Women’s Studies Encyclopedia – Revised and Expanded Edition† ed. Helen Tierney, 1999 "The Imposter Phenomenon is an internal experience of intellectual phoniness that seems to be prevalent among high-achieving persons, with particularly deleterious effects on women†¦ It is an emotionally debilitating condition characterized by persistent and unwarranted anxiety about achievement, dread of evaluation, fear of failure and exposure, inability to internalize success, and lack of enjoyment of accomplishment and achievement." Nestled between the stacks on the 8th floor of Uris Library, I am King of the Hill. Through the window my realm is expansive: I can see Libe Slope stretching below me fringed with the solid, quiet beauty of the gothics. Beyond this, Cayuga Lake glimmers in the afternoon sun. I feel so powerful. Here I am at an Ivy League university with every resource and opportunity waiting to be discovered. I am so fortunate to be here. I look at my fellow students trudging purposefully up and down the slope. They are so small. Yet even from this distance I can see the confidence in their steps, their grace and determination, and the skillful way they carry the demands of an academic upon their shoulders. They are true knights of our university, fighting for understanding and mastery of their fields. In the light of their glory, my crown fades. Who am I to call myself King? I may be a knight but I am pretending. My armor is made of aluminum foil, my shield is cardboard. Even high in this tower, I am small. After hearing about the imposter syndrome for the first time, I couldn’t stop thinking about it. It was something I identified with but had never put a name to. How many times have I questioned myself and my abilities? I figured that it is a normal part of growing up, a personal insecurity as I try to discover who I am and where I fit in the web of life. I didn’t necessarily see it as a bad thing. But when I started doing research and saw how intelligent, capable, and talented adults are dealing with these same issues I began to see it as a pervasive problem. Especially when these professionals are turning down promotions because they feel they aren’t good enough, or are unhappy in life because they aren’t happy with themselves.

Environmental Degration

One of the major threat the planet faces today, environmental degradation is bound to make life difficult for all the lifeforms, including us humans, sooner or later. Studies reveal that the deterioration of environment is occurring at an alarming rate. In fact, the High Level Threat Panel of the United Nations has enlisted it as one of the ten threats for humans. This issue shares space with problems like poverty, terrorism and civil war in the list, and this itself highlights the fact that we are heading for a certain disaster. What is Environmental Degradation?It is a process wherein the natural environment of the planet is degenerated to such an extent that the biodiversity and the general health of the planet is subjected to drastic reduction. In other words, this phenomenon can be defined as deterioration of the Earth's natural surroundings as a result of excessive exploitation of the available resources – these include water, air, flora, fauna, soil etc. The life on the planet is interwoven to such an extent that a decrease in a particular attribute triggers a domino effect on all the other attributes dependent on it.How is it Caused? ’; Environmental degradation can be attributed to various human activities and some natural processes, with the later having an insignificant share in the same. Most of the resources on the planet are vulnerable to depletion, and the rate at which we are exploiting them have already brought some of them to the brink of exhaustion. Exploitation of the fossil fuels is the best example of this phenomenon. Large-scale exploitation has depleted the fossil fuel reserves across the world, thus leaving us with no option but to find an alternate source of energy.Other human activities which have been contributing to this environmental issue include urbanization, overpopulation, deforestation, pollution, hunting, etc. What Does it Affect Us? Its effects are becoming more and more obvious in form of all those environment al issues affecting the planet. The hazardous waste let out by the industries tends to contaminate the water bodies in the vicinity, thus leaving the water unfit for drinking.Similarly, greenhouse gases, such as CFCs and carbon dioxide, let out in the atmosphere have a devastating effect on the environment, thus making the planet vulnerable to a range of problems, including global warming and climate change. On one hand, incessant agricultural activities have resulted in degradation of soil, while excessive deforestation to accumulate the growing population has resulted in degradation of air and water on the other hand. Humans have seldom sacrificed their necessities, but lately exploitation of resources to fulfill these necessities itself is taking a toll on the environment.How Can we Deal With it? At one point of time, the damage reaches a stage wherein the environment can't attain the required balance on its own. In such a situation, we humans need to step in, and ensure that the damage is curbed and balance is attained. Simple measures, such as conservation of electricity, use of alternative energy sources, avoiding the use of things that pollute the environment, soil conservation, etc. , can help in saving the environment from the threat of degradation. Environmentalists, the world over, are trying their best to save our environment, and we need to do our bit to make sure that they succeed.The need of the hour is to identify the causes of environmental degradation, and eliminate them one by one. We need to understand the fact that we are a part of the interwoven life system on the planet, and any problems, like environmental degradation and environmental pollution, are bound to affect us directly or indirectly. Though the disaster is not expected to happen tomorrow or a hundred years from now, that doesn't mean it will never happen at all. That being said, the onus is on us – the most intelligent species on the planet, to make sure that such proble ms are kept at bay.The main causes of environmental degradation are as follow; 1 Industrialization 2 Agricultural development 3 population growth 4 poverty 5 urbanization 6 Deforestation 7 transport development 8 market failure Causes of Environmental Degradation There is no doubt that man has caused environmental degradation. The causes of environmental degeneration are complex and should be addressed to, before it causes complete breakdown of the environment.Ads by Google BSc Psychology Online Study In Nigeria – UK Universities. Apply Online Now For Home Study www. rdi. co. k/psychology These are the days we keep hearing about global warming, melting of the glaciers, rising of the sea levels, etc. , all of which have been linked to environmental degradation. When the natural state of the environment is compromised upon it leads to breakdown of the biological diversity and harms the health of the environment. The process of environmental degradation can either be caused by n ature itself or it is man-made (which is a fact). If one has to compare the face of earth as it was hundreds of years ago to what it is today, we will see that environment has severely been compromised upon.When people look at environmental degradation, the intensity of the problem is not actually understood, but it could cause destruction of the human race itself. The causes of this problem vary a lot and it means depletion of the natural resources and disturbances in the natural cycle of things on the face of earth. Root Causes of Environmental Degradation The best case of environmental degradation can be seen in land degradation. There are climatic conditions responsible along with the human activities, which have brought about the degradation.The effects can be seen in the arid, semi arid and dry sub humid lands. One of the cause is over grazing of land. Along with that the green cover has depleted severely in almost all parts of the world. The forest cover has made way for huma n settlement. This has resulted in the temperatures increasing with each passing day. Since the forest covers have depleted, it has resulted in large-scale erosion, which in turn, is responsible for loss of nutrients from the soil. This has led the soil to becoming barren and in some cases also sterile.Since the forest cover has been lost, the winds now blow the top soil from the land, which also leads to degradation of the environment. Pollution is eating away into the environment. Here we are talking about air pollution, where toxic substances have made their way into the air, which has caused the air to become unhealthy. Air pollution is caused by a number of reasons. One of the most prominent cause is vehicle emissions. With each passing day, the number of vehicles are on the rise, which means increase in air pollution. The next cause is release of chemical waste from various factories.The waste often forms a layer in the atmosphere of the earth, which further affects the enviro nment. In environmental degradation we cannot forget the exploitation of fossil fuels. Since the time fossil fuels were discovered, they have been exploited. This has resulted in the fossil fuel reserves depleting all around the world, hence it has become important to find alternate sources of energy. When the fossil fuels are burnt, they release toxins into the air, which further aggravate environmental degradation. The underlying causes of environment going down way is overpopulation.The land reserve that is available on earth is finite. However, the demands are ever-increasing due to increasing population. There is only so much, that one can actually extract from the earth. This has led to widespread use of chemicals and other toxins to produce more food to feed the ever-increasing number of people. This has further caused depletion of the earth. With the use of chemicals the biological balance of earth has also been destroyed as the microorganisms have been killed. If one has to see the environmental degradation causes and effects, one will see that entire ecosystems have been destroyed.The ecosystem is made up of all the living and non living elements. However, when any one of them is destroyed, it leads to the destruction of the entire ecosystem as the balance is lost. No doubt plants and animals form an important feature of the ecosystem, but the microorganisms along with water sources and soil cannot be forgotten either. Industrial waste is known to be hazardous to the environment. The waste can be in the form of liquid waste, which pollute the rivers and cause harm to the ecosystem present in the rivers.It can also be solid waste, which is not biodegradable and pollutes the environment and leads to its degradation. We have already spoken about the industrial waste emitted into the air. After reading about the causes of environmental decadence, we can say that if the human race has to survive on the face of this earth, it is important that stringent me asures be taken up to arrest further deterioration of the environment. One will have to work towards conserving air, water and soil and try to restore balance in the ecosystem, which has been destroyed or is on the verge of destruction.In other words, one will have to work towards restoring natural habitats and make sure no further harm is done to the environment. By Bhakti Satalkar Published: 3/25/2011 * Environmental Degradation * How do Humans Affect the Environment * Current Environmental Issues * List of Environmental Problems * Simple Ways to Save the Environment * How does Mining Affect the Environment * How to Save the Environment * Globalization and Its Impact on the Environment * What are Environmental Ethics?* Environmental Issues List * How to Save Our Environment * Sustainable Living Ideas Causes of Overpopulation * Why are Birds and Fish Dying Read more at Buzzle: http://www. buzzle. com/articles/causes-of-environmental-degradation. html Environmental degradation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Eighty-plus years after the abandonment of Wallaroo Mines (Kadina, South Australia), mosses remain the only vegetation at some spots of the site's grounds Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife.It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. [1] Environmental degradation is one of the Ten Threats officially cautioned by the High Level Threat Panel of the United Nations. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as â€Å"The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs†. [2] Environmental degradation is of many types.When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted, environment is degrad ed. | This article may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help us clarify the article; suggestions may be found on the talk page. (May 2012) | Environmental Change and Human Health, a special section of World Resources 1998-99 in this report describes how preventable illnesses and premature deaths are still occurring in very large numbers. If vast improvements are made in human health, millions of people will be living longer, healthier lives than ever before.In these poorest regions of the world an estimated 11 million children, or about one in five, will not live to see their fifth birthday, primarily because of environment-related diseases. Child mortality is larger than the combined populations of Norway and Switzerland, and mostly due to malaria, acute respiratory infections or diarrhea — illnesses that are largely preventable. Contents [hide] * 1 Water deterioration * 1. 1 Climate change and temperature * 1. 2 Climate change and precipitation * 1. 3 Population g rowth* 1. 4 Agriculture * 1. Water management * 2 See also * 3 References * 4 External links| [edit] Water deterioration One major component of environmental degradation is the depletion of the resource of fresh water on Earth. Approximately only 2. 5% of all of the water on Earth is fresh water, with the rest being salt water. 69% of the fresh water is frozen in ice caps located on Antarctica and Greenland, so only 30% of the 2. 5% of fresh water is available for consumption. [3] Fresh water is an exceptionally important resource, since life on Earth is ultimately dependent on it.Water transports nutrients and chemicals within the biosphere to all forms of life, sustains both plants and animals, and molds the surface of the Earth with transportation and deposition of materials. [4] The current top three uses of fresh water account for 95% of its consumption; approximately 85% is used for irrigation of farmland, golf courses, and parks, 6% is used for domestic purposes such as indoo r bathing uses and outdoor garden and lawn use, and 4% is used for industrial purposes such as processing, washing, and cooling in manufacturing centers. 5] It is estimated that one in three people over the entire globe are already facing water shortages, almost one-fifth of the world’s population live in areas of physical water scarcity, and almost one quarter of the world’s population live in a developing country that lacks the necessary infrastructure to use water from available rivers and aquifers.Water scarcity is an increasing problem due to many foreseen issues in the future, including population growth, increased urbanization, higher standards of living, and climate change. 3] [edit] Climate change and temperature Climate change affects the Earth’s water supply in a large number of ways. It is predicted that the mean global temperature will rise in the coming years due to a number of forces affecting the climate, the amount of atmospheric CO2 will rise, and both of these will influence water resources; evaporation depends strongly on temperature and moisture availability, which can ultimately affect the amount of water available to replenish groundwater supplies.Transpiration from plants can be affected by a rise in atmospheric CO2, which can decrease their use of water, but can also raise their use of water from possible increases of leaf area. Temperature increase can decrease the length of the snow season in the winter and increase the intensity of snowmelt in warmer seasons, leading to peak runoff of snowmelt earlier in the season, affecting soil moisture, flood and drought risks, and storage capacities depending on the area. [6] Warmer winter temperatures cause a decrease in snowpack, which can result in diminished water resources during the summer.This is especially important at mid-latitudes and in mountain regions that depend on glacial runoff to replenish their river systems and groundwater supplies, making these areas inc reasingly vulnerable to water shortages over time; an increase in temperature will initially result in a rapid rise in water melting from glaciers in the summer, followed by a retreat in glaciers and a decrease in the melt and consequently the water supply every year as the size of these glaciers get smaller and smaller. 3]Thermal expansion of water and increased melting of oceanic glaciers from an increase in temperature gives way to a rise in sea level, which can affect the fresh water supply of coastal areas as well; as river mouths and deltas with higher salinity get pushed further inland, an intrusion of saltwater results in an increase of salinity in reservoirs and aquifers. 5] Sea-level rise may also consequently be caused by a depletion of groundwater,[7] as climate change can affect the hydrologic cycle in a number of ways. Uneven distributions of increased temperatures and increased precipitation around the globe results in water surpluses and deficits,[6] but a global dec rease in groundwater suggests a rise in sea level, even after meltwater and thermal expansion were accounted for,[7] which can provide a positive feedback to the problems sea-level rise causes to fresh-water supply.A rise in air temperature results in a rise in water temperature, which is also very significant in water degradation, as the water would become more susceptible to bacterial growth. An increase in water temperature can also affect ecosystems greatly because of a species’ sensitivity to temperature, and also by inducing changes in a body of water’s self-purification system from decreased amounts of dissolved oxygen in the water due to rises in temperature. [3] [edit] Climate change and precipitationA rise in global temperatures is also predicted to correlate with an increase in global precipitation, but because of increased runoff, floods, increased rates of soil erosion, and mass movement of land, a decline in water quality is probable, while water will car ry more nutrients, it will also carry more contaminants. [3] While most of the attention about climate change is directed towards global warming and greenhouse effect, some of the most severe effects of climate change are likely to be from changes in precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff, and soil moisture.It is generally expected that, on average, global precipitation will increase, with some areas receiving increases and some decreases. Climate models show that while some regions should expect an increase in precipitation,[6] such as in the tropics and higher latitudes, other areas are expected to see a decrease, such as in the subtropics; this will ultimately cause a latitudinal variation in water distribution. 3] The areas receiving more precipitation are also expected to receive this increase during their winter and actually become drier during their summer,[6] creating even more of a variation of precipitation distribution. Naturally, the distribution of precipitation acro ss the planet is very uneven, causing constant variations in water availability in respective locations. Changes in precipitation affect the timing and magnitude of floods and droughts, shift runoff processes, and alter groundwater recharge rates.Vegetation patterns and growth rates will be directly affected by shifts in precipitation amount and distribution, which will in turn affect agriculture as well as natural ecosystems. Decreased precipitation will deprive areas of water, causing water tables to fall and reservoirs and wetlands, rivers, and lakes to empty,[6] and possibly an increase in evaporation and evapotranspiration, depending on the accompanied rise in temperature. [5] Groundwater reserves will be depleted, and the remaining water has a greater chance of being of poor quality from saline or contaminants on the land surface. 3] [edit] Population growth The available fresh water being affected by climate is also being stretched across an ever-increasing global population. It is estimated that almost a quarter of the global population is living in an area that is using more than 20% of their renewable water supply; water use will rise with population while the water is also being aggravated by decreases in streamflow and groundwater caused by climate change.Even though some areas may see an increase in freshwater supply from an uneven distribution of precipitation increase, an increased use of water supply is expected. [8] An increased population means increased withdrawals from the water supply for domestic, agricultural, and industrial uses, the largest of these being agriculture,[9] believed to be the major non-climate driver of environmental change and water deterioration.The next 50 years will likely be the last period of rapid agricultural expansion, but the larger and wealthier population over this time will demand more agriculture. [10] Population increase over the last two decades, at least in the United States, has also been accompanied by a shift to an increase in urban areas from rural areas,[11] which concentrates the demand for water into certain areas, and puts stress on the fresh water supply from industrial and human contaminants. 3] Urbanization causes overcrowding and increasingly unsanitary living conditions, especially in developing countries, which in turn exposes an increasingly number of people to disease. About 79% of the world’s population is in developing countries, which lack access to sanitary water and sewer systems, giving rises to disease and deaths from contaminated water and increased numbers of disease-carrying insects. [12] [edit] AgricultureAgriculture is dependent on available soil moisture, which is directly affected by climate dynamics, with precipitation being the input in this system and various processes being the output, such as evapotranspiration, surface runoff, drainage, and percolation into groundwater. Changes in climate, especially the changes in precipitation and evapotr anspiration predicted by climate models, will directly affect soil moisture, surface runoff, and groundwater recharge. In areas with decreasing precipitation as predicted by the climate models, soil moisture may be substantially educed. [6] With this in mind, agriculture in most areas needs irrigation already, which depletes fresh water supplies both by the physical use of the water and the degradation agriculture causes to the water. Irrigation increases salt and nutrient content in areas that wouldn’t normally be affected, and damages streams and rivers from damming and removal of water. Fertilizer enters both human and livestock waste streams that eventually enter groundwater, while nitrogen, phosphorus, and other chemicals from fertilizer can acidify both soils and water.Certain agricultural demands may increase more than others with an increasingly wealthier global population, and meat is one commodity expected to double global food demand by 2050,[10] which directly aff ects the global supply of fresh water. Cows need water to drink, more if the temperature is high and humidity is low, and more if the production system the cow is in is extensive, since finding food takes more effort. Water is needed in processing of the meat, and also in the production of feed for the livestock.Manure can contaminate bodies of freshwater, and slaughterhouses, depending on how well they are managed, contribute waste such as blood, fat, hair, and other bodily contents to supplies of fresh water. [13] The transfer of water from agricultural to urban and suburban use raises concerns about agricultural sustainability, rural socioeconomic decline, food security, an increased carbon footprint from imported food, and decreased foreign trade balance. 9] The depletion of fresh water, as applied to more specific and populated areas, increases fresh water scarcity among the population and also makes populations susceptible to economic, social, and political conflict in a numbe r of ways; rising sea levels forces migration from coastal areas to other areas farther inland, pushing populations closer together breaching borders and other geographical patterns, and agricultural surpluses and deficits from the availability of water induce trade problems and economies of certain areas. 8]CLimate change is an important cause of involuntary migration and forced displacement[14] [edit] Water management The issue of the depletion of fresh water can be met by increased efforts in water management. [4] While water management systems are often flexible, adaptation to new hydrologic conditions may be very costly. [6] Preventative approaches are necessary to avoid high costs of inefficiency and the need for rehabilitation of water supplies,[4] and innovations to decrease overall demand may be important in planning water sustainability. 9] Water supply systems, as they exist now, were based on the assumptions of the current climate, and built to accommodate existing river flows and flood frequencies. Reservoirs are operated based on past hydrologic records, and irrigation systems on historical temperature, water availability, and crop water requirements; these may not be a reliable guide to the future. Re-examining engineering designs, operations, optimizations, and planning, as well as re-evaluating legal, technical, and economic approaches to manage water resources are very important for the future of water management in response to water degradation.Another approach is water privatization; despite its economic and cultural effects, service quality and overall quality of the water can be more easily controlled and distributed. Rationality and sustainability is appropriate, and requires limits to overexploitation and pollution, and efforts in conservation.Natural hazards are excluded as a cause, however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires. 8. This is considered to be an important topic of the 21st century due to the implications land degradation has upon agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effects on food security. 3] It is estimated that up to 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degrad Measuring Land degradation is a broad term that can be applied differently across a wide range of scenarios. There are four main ways of looking at land degradation and its impact on the environment around it: * A temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land.This can be seen through a loss of biomass, a loss of actual productivity or in potential productivity, or a loss or change in vegetative cover and soil nutrients. A decline in the lands â€Å"usefulness†: A loss or reduction in the lands capacity to provide resources for human livelihoods. This can be measured from a base line of past land use. * Loss of biodiversity: A loss of range of species or ecosystem complexity as a decline in the environmental quality. * Shifting ecological risk: increased vulnerability of the environment or people to destruction or crisis. This is measured through a base line in the form of pre-existing risk of crisis or destruction. A problem with measuring land degradation is that what one group of people call degradation, others might view as a benefit or opportunity.For example, heavy rainfall could make a scientific group be worried about high erosion of the soil while farmers could view it as a good opportunity to plant crops. [5] [edit] Causes Overgrazing by livestock can lead to land degradation Land degradation is a global problem, largely related to agricultural use. The major causes include:[citation needed] * Land clearance, such as clearcutting and deforestation * Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices * Livestock including overgrazing and overdrafting * Inappropriate irrigation[6] and overdrafting * Urban sprawl and commercial development Soil contamination including * Vehicle off-roading * Qua rrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals * Increase in field size due to economies of scale, reducing shelter for wildlife, as hedgerows and copses disappear * Exposure of naked soil after harvesting by heavy equipment * Monoculture, destabilizing the local ecosystem * Dumping of non-biodegradable trash, such as plastics [edit] Effects Soil erosion in a wheat field near Pullman, USA. The main outcome of land degradation is a substantial reduction in the productivity of the land.[7] The major stresses on vulnerable land include: * Accelerated soil erosion by wind and water Soil acidification and the formation of acid sulfate soil resulting in barren soil * Soil alkalinisation owing to irrigation with water containing sodium bicarbonate leading to poor soil structure and reduced crop yields * Soil salination in irrigated land requiring soil salinity control to reclaim the land [8] * Soil waterlogging in irrigated land which calls for some form of subsurface land drainage to remediate t he negative effects [8] * Destruction of soil structure including loss of organic matter Overcutting of vegetation occurs when people cut forests, woodlands and shrublands—to obtain timber, fuelwood and other products—at a pace exceeding the rate of natural regrowth. This is frequent in semi-arid environments, where fuelwood shortages are often severe. Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensities above the livestock carrying capacity; the resulting decrease in the vegetation cover is a leading cause of wind and water erosion. It is a significant factor in Afghanistan.Agricultural activities that can cause land degradation include shifting cultivation without adequate fallow periods, absence of soil conservation measures, fertilizer use, and a host of possible problems arising from faulty planning or management of irrigation. They are a major factor in Sri Lanka and the dominant one in Bangladesh. The role of population factors in land degradat ion processes obviously occurs in the context of the underlying causes. In the region, in fact, it is indeed one of the two along with land shortage, and land shortage itself ultimately is a consequence of continued population growth in the face of the finiteness of land resources. In the context of land shortage the growing population pressure, during 1980-1990, has led to decreases in the already small areas of agricultural land per person in six out of eight countries (14% for India and 22% for Pakistan).Population pressure also operates through other mechanisms. Improper agricultural practices, for instance, occur only under constraints such as the saturation of good lands under population pressure which leads settlers to cultivate too shallow or too steep soils, plough fallow land before it has recovered its fertility, or attempt to obtain multiple crops by irrigating unsuitable soils. High population density is not always related to land degradation. Rather, it is the practice s of the human population that can cause a landscape to become degraded. Populations can be a benefit to the land and make it more productive than it is in its natural state.Land degradation is important factor of internal displacement in many African and Asian countries[9] Severe land degradation affects a significant portion of the Earth's arable lands, decreasing the wealth and economic development of nations. As the land resource base becomes less productive, food security is compromised and competition for dwindling resources increases, the seeds of famine and potential conflict are sewn. [edit] Sensitivity and resilience Sensitivity and resilience are measures of the vulnerability of a landscape to degradation. These two factors combine to explain the degree of vulnerability. [5] Sensitivity is the degree to which a land system undergoes change due to natural forces, human intervention or a combination of both.Resilience is the ability of a landscape to absorb change, without significantly altering the relationship between the relative importance and numbers of individuals and species that compose the community. [10] It also refers to the ability of the region to return to its original state after being changed in some way. The resilience of a landscape can be increased or decreased through human interaction based upon different methods of land-use management. Land that is degraded becomes less resilient than undegraded land, which can lead to even further degration through shocks to the landscape. [edit] Climate change Significant land degradation from seawater inundation, particularly in river deltas and on low-lying islands, is a potential hazard that was identified in a 2007 IPCC report. citation needed] As a result of sea-level rise from climate change, salinity levels can reach levels where agriculture becomes impossible in very low lying areas.Journal ofLand Degradation & DevelopmentVol 24 (6 Issues in 2013)Edited by: Professor Artemi Cerdà  Prin t ISSN: 1085-3278 Online ISSN: 1099-145X| * Description Land Degradation & Development is an international journal which seeks to promote rational study of the recognition, monitoring, control and rehabilitation of degradation in terrestrial environments. The journal focuses on: * what land degradation is; * what causes land degradation; * the impacts of land degradation * the scale of land degradation; * the history, current status or future trends of land degradation; * avoidance, mitigation and control of land degradation; * remedial actions to rehabilitate or restore degraded land; * sustainable land management.Land degradation may be defined as the loss of utility or potential utility through the reduction of or damage to physical, social, cultural or economic features, and/or reduction of ecosystem diversity. There may be a single cause or a complex mix of causes, some may be biogeophysical ('natural'), some socioeconomic ('human') and it is quite possible that cause(s) will be indirect, perhaps cumulative and difficult to identify. A major challenge is to learn how interactions between development and environment can be better managed to increase prospects for ecologically and socially sustainable improvements to human well-being.Development means attempts to improve human well-being or environmental quality in rich and poor nations on a sustained basis (sustainable development). Papers are invited on scientific, social, economic, political and historical aspects of terrestrial environmental degradation. Also welcome are analyses presenting forecasts of trends, case studies and discussion on management, planning and policy-making relating to the promotion of ecological sustainability and the counteraction of land degradation. In addition to original research papers, regional and thematic reviews, both invited and submitted, will be included, as will short communications, book reviews and applications of remote sensing and computer te chniques.The members of the Editorial Board are drawn from a comprehensive range of disciplines and nationalities. Together with a strict refereeing procedure this will ensure Land Degradation & Development maintains a high standard and presents material from a wide range of disciplines, from interdisciplinary study and with an international coverage. The subject matter will include the following topics: ENVIRONMENTS Degradation of: deserts, savannas, rangelands; forests, woodlands, tundra; mountain environments; wetlands, floodlands; farmland, irrigated land; sand-dunes; coastal zones, islands, urban, peri-urban environments. In polar, temperate, subtropical and tropical regions.PROCESSES #39;Desertification', rangeland degradation; soil degradation (compaction, loss of fertility, reduced organic matter, pollution, waterlogging, acidification, salinization, alkalinization, 'laterite' and hard-pan formation); erosion; degradation of vegetation cover, 'deforestati on'; impoverishment of wildlife habitats, loss of species. CAUSES Climatic change; sea-level variation; drought; storms; earth processes (geomorphological, volcanicity, natural leaching of soils); bushfires; degradation as a consequence of: industry, urban growth, agrochemicals, agricultural modernization, energy production/consumption, mining, warfare, refugees or migrants, breakdown of traditional landuse strategies, altered communications, legislative changes, demographic changes, administrative causes, institutional causes, social or economic causes. PERCEPTIONSPerception/recognition of degradation, attitudes toward degradation; ethics and land degradation; indicators; monitoring, surveillance; assessment of significance; establishing past, present and future trends. IMPACTS Physical, biological, social, cultural and economic impacts (direct, indirect, cumulative); long-term and short-term impacts; assessment of significance; aesthetic impact of degradation. Water pollution From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Raw sewage and industrial waste in the New River as it passes from Mexicali to Calexico, California. Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e. g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater).Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities. * 1 Introduction * 2 Categories * 2. 1 Point sources * 2. 2 Nonpoint sources * 3 Groundwater pollution * 4 Causes * 4. 1 Pathogens * 4. 2 Chemical and other contaminants * 4. 3 Thermal pollution * 5 Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants * 6 Measurement * 6. 1 Sampling * 6. 2 Physical testing * 6. Chemical testing * 6. 4 Biological test ing * 7 Control of pollution * 7. 1 Domestic sewage * 7. 2 Industrial wastewater * 7. 3 Agricultural wastewater * 7. 4 Construction site stormwater * 7. 5 Urban runoff (stormwater) * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 External links| Introduction Millions depend on the polluted Ganges river Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells).It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases,[1][2] and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. 2] An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal sickness every day. [3] Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some degree of water pollution,[4] and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe drinking water. [5] In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, develo ped countries continue to struggle with pollution problems as well. In the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream miles, 47 percent of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted. 6]Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, and/or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water. Categories Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources, although they are interrelated. [7] Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surf ace water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin. Point sourcesPoint source pollution – Shipyard – Rio de Janeiro. Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U. S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes. [8] The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial stormwater, such as from construction sites. [9] Nonpoint sources Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source.NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agric ultural lands. Nutrient runoff in stormwater from â€Å"sheet flow† over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS pollution. Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution. However, this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source. Groundwater pollution See also: Hydrogeology Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex.Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. [7] By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing releases of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into s oil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point source or non-point source pollution, but can contaminate the aquifer below, defined as a toxin plume. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model.Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on the soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants. Causes The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc. ) the concentration is often the key in determining what is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna.Oxy gen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e. g. leaves and grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species. [10] Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts. [11] Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases in the primary productivity of the ecosystem.Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations. Pathogens A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitary sewer overflow . Coliform bacteria are a commonly used bacterial indicator of water pollution, although not an actual cause of disease. Other microorganisms sometimes found in surface waters which have caused human health problems include: * Burkholderia pseudomallei * Cryptosporidium parvum * Giardia lamblia * Salmonella * Novovirus and other viruses * Parasitic worms (helminths). [12][13] High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges. 14]This can be caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary treatment (more typical in less-developed countries). In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms. [15] Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations. Chemical and other contaminants Muddy river polluted by sed iment. Photo courtesy of United States Geological Survey. Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Organic water pollutants include:* Detergents Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as chloroform * Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease * Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical compounds * Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from stormwater runoff[16] * Tree and bush debris from logging operations * Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage. * Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may fall to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser. * Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) * Trichloroethylene * Perchlorate * Various chemi cal compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.A garbage collection boom in an urban-area stream in Auckland, New Zealand. Inorganic water pollutants include: * Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants) * Ammonia from food processing waste * Chemical waste as industrial by-products * Fertilizers containing nutrients–nitrates and phosphates—which are found in stormwater runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use[16] * Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff)[16][17] and acid mine drainage * Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites. Macroscopic Pollution in Parks Milwaukee, WIMacroscopic pollution—large visible items polluting the water—may be termed â€Å"floatables† in an urban stormwater context, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include such items as: * Tras h or garbage (e. g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters * Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets * Shipwrecks, large derelict ships. Thermal pollution Main article: Thermal pollution Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence.Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decreases oxygen levels (which can kill fish) and affects ecosystem composition, such as invasion by new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters. Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from t he base of reservoirs into warmer rivers. Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants See also: Marine pollution Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans.In some areas of the world the influence can be traced hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such as SWMM or the DSSAM Model have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter feeding species such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the New York Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at the mouth of the Hudson River, but 100 kilometers south, since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the coast due to coriolis force.Further south then are areas of oxygen depletion, caused by chemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported, because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes a stepwise concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e. g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT. This is known as biomagnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bioaccumulation. A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris.The North Pacific Gyre for example has collected the so-called â€Å"Great Pacific Garbage Patch† that is now estimated at 100 times the size of Texas. Many of these long-lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine birds and animals. This results in obstruction of digestive pathways which leads to reduced appetite or even starvation. Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically change especi ally over long periods of time in groundwater reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the chlorinated hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry cleaning industry (note latest advances in liquid carbon dioxide in dry cleaning that avoids all use of chemicals).Both of these chemicals, which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new hazardous chemicals (including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride). Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution, and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity: however, in some cases, the pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that mo ves through cracks and caverns is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water.In fact, this can be aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas of Karst topography. There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants. Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical, chemical and biological. Most involve collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature.Government agencies and research organizations have published standardized, validated analytical test methods to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate testing events. [18] Sampling Sampling of water for physical or chemical test ing can be done by several methods, depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Many contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain events. For this reason â€Å"grab† samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge intervals.Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the surface water body. Depending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or they may be dissected for bioassays to determine toxicity. Further information: Water quality#Sampling and Measurement Physical testing Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentrations (e. g. , total suspended solids (TSS)) and turbidity. Chemical testing See al so: water chemistry analysis and environmental chemistry Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds.Frequently used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),[19]:102 chemical oxygen demand (COD),[19]:104 nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and pesticides. Biological testing Main article: Bioindicator Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and/or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. Control of pollution Domestic sewage Main article: Sewage treatment Deer Island Waste Water Treatment Plant serving Boston, Massachusetts and vicinity. Domestic sewage is 99. 9 percent pure water, while the other 0. 1 percent are pollutants.Although found in low concentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a large scale. [20] In urban areas, domestic sewage is typically treated by centralized sewage treatment plants. In the U. S. , most of these plants are operated by local government agencies, frequently referred to as publicly owned treatment works (POTW). Municipal treatment plants are designed to control conventional pollutants: BOD and suspended solids. Well-designed and operated systems (i. e. , secondary treatment or better) can remove 90 percent or more of these pollutants. Some plants have additional sub-systems to treat nutrients and pathogens. Most municipal plants are not designed to treat toxic pollutants found in industrial wastewater. 21]Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including: * utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management capacity throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant[22] * repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment[15] * increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very expensive option). A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septic tank, which treats the wastewater on site and discharges into the soil.Alternatively, domestic wastewater may be sent to a nearby privately owned treatment system (e. g. in a rural community). Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e. g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e. g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the partially treated wastewater to the municipal system.Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on-site treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention. Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with: * cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection, and radiation * cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or heat transfer * cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating purposes. [23] Agricultural wastewaterMain article: Agricultural wastewater treatment Riparian buffer lining a creek in Iowa Nonpoint source controls Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the United States. [10] Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers. [24][25]:pp. 4-95–4-96 Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer; animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge.Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition. [25]:p. 2-9 Farmers can develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess application of nutrients. [24][25]:pp. 4-37–4-38 To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality. [26] Feedlot in the United States Point source wastewater treatment Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are call ed concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots in the US and are being subject to increasing government regulation. 27][28] Animal slurries are usually treated by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland.Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes. Some animal slurries are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to produce a bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement. Construction site stormwater Silt fence installed on a construction site. Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of: * erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and * sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences. [29] Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use of: * spill prevention and control plans, and specially designed containers (e. g. for concrete washout) and structures such as o verflow controls and diversion berms. [30] Urban runoff (stormwater) Main article: Urban runoff See also: Green infrastructure Retention basin for controlling urban runoff Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff.These techniques, called best management practices (BMPs) in the U. S. , may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions. 31] Pollution prevention practices include low-impact development techniques, installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling (e. g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and pesticides). [32] Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar devices. [33][34] Thermal pollution from runoff can be cont rolled by stormwater management facilities that absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream. [31]:p. 5-58 *